Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Bassett, L., Buchanan-Smith, H. M., McKinley, J. et al. 2003. Effects of training on stress-related behavior of the common marmost (Callithrix jacchus) in relation to coping with routine husbandry procedures. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 221-233.

Using positive reinforcement, J. McKinley trained 12 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to provide urine samples on request. The study then exposed the marmosets to mildly stressful, routine husbandry procedures (i.e., capture and weighing). The nonhuman...

Schapiro, S. J. 2000. A few new developments in primate housing and husbandry. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 27(2), 103-110.

A major focus of this paper is an examination of the complementary role that behavioral management strategies play in the establishment and enhancement of well-defined nonhuman primate research resources. .... Additionally, I will discuss the...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. Blood collection procedure of laboratory primates: A neglected variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(4), 321-333.

A survey of 75 biomedical articles dealing with stress-dependent blood parameters in caged primates revealed that the conditions under which blood collection occurred were in most cases [72%] described either not at all or so...

Cary, M., Valentine, B., Hill, W. 2000. The effect of mother-infant separation in captive baboons on time intervals to first postpartum estrus, confirmed pregnancy and subsequent parturition. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 106 (Abstract P123).

It is generally thought that early forced-weaning of infants would reduce the time from parturition to the first fertile postpartum estrus thus maximizing reproductive efficiency. ... From a survey of 23 animal records we determined...

Wakenshaw, V. 1999. The management and husbandry of Geoffroy's marmoset. International Zoo News 46(1), 3-15.

A survey of selected enrichment programs for group-housed marmosets. Older individuals ... appear to habituate themselves less to the presence of visitors, and get very agitated when approached. ... High perches should be provided to...

Abello, M. T., Velasco, M., Esteban, F. 1999. A training programme for a male gorilla at Barcelona Zoo. International Zoo News 46, 418-420.

Training program for voluntary ejaculation is described. In May 1998 we began the training program with Xebo. At the time of this writing (March 1999) Xebo understands ten different orders. ... So we hope that...

Schnell, C. R., Gerber, P. 1997. Training and remote monitoring of cardiovascular parameters in non-human primates. Primate Report 49, 61-70.

The use of "pre-invasive" implantable radio telemetry has revolutionized the collection of physiological data under stress-free conditions. It is now possible to measure accurately 'normal' baseline data of haemodynamic and electrical parameters in conscious and...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1996. Refining the blood collection procedure for macaques. Lab Animal 25(1), 32-35.

Training protocol is described. These findings lead to the conclusion that training nonhuman primates to cooperate during venipuncture in their familiar home environment offers a methodological refinement by eliminating significant cortisol responses.

Capitanio, J. P., Mendoza, S. P., McChesney, M. 1996. Influences of blood sampling procedures on basal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal hormone levels and leukocyte values in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Medical Primatology 25(1), 26-33.

Differences in housing location and the amount of room disturbance associated with blood sampling have a significant impact on cell counts, but not on ACTH or cortisol levels. We believe that the critical factor that...

Brent, L. 1995. Improving the laboratory environment for nonhuman primates. Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) Quarterly 44(1), 14-15.

Environmental improvements include construction of large indoor cages that allow pairing of experimental animals, a grass-covered 'playground' for breeding chimpanzee groups, and indoor/outdoor group housing for 'retired' experimental animals. In addition, we provide toys, perches...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D. 1992. In-homecage blood collection from conscious stumptailed macaques. Animal Welfare 1(4), 249-255.

Six adult female stumptailed macaques (Macaca aretoides) were trained within a two week period to actively co-operate during in-homecage venipuncture rather than in a restraint apparatus away from the homecage. The training was based on...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Improved handling of experimental rhesus monkeys. In: The Inevitable Bond. Examining Scientist-Animal Interactions. Davis, H., Balfour, A. D. (eds), 171-177. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

The significant increase of serum cortisol concentration associated with involuntary manual or mechanical restraint during venipuncture was absent in females who were trained to voluntarily cooperate during the procedure in the homecage. The present findings...

Anonymous. 1992. Annual Reports: Howletts and Port Lympne Zoo Parks, UK. International Zoo News 39(1), 30-41.

Several structural enrichment enhancers are described. When a barrel with an opening in the front was hung from the roof of the siamang enclosure, our then solitary male, Mitch, spent much of his time looking...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Eisele, S. et al. 1991. Avoiding undue cortisol responses to venipuncture in adult male rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 42, 83-86.

Six adult rhesus males were: a) habituated to actively cooperate during venipuncture away from the homecage in a treatment squeeze cage, and b) trained to actively cooperate during venipuncture in the homecage.The magnitude of cortisol...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Training adult male rhesus monkeys to actively cooperate during in-homecage venipuncture. Animal Technology 42, 11-17.

A training technique is described for ensuring the active cooperation of 10 pair-housed and 5 single-housed adult male rhesus monkeys during in-homecage venipuncture. Mean cumulative training time investment per male was 40 minutes. Once trained...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Impact of venipuncture on physiological research conducted in conscious macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(5-6), 212-217.

A survey of 397 publications dealing with macaques was conducted. Stress-sensitive physiological data collected during venipuncture were evaluated in 58 reports. Despite of the fact that venipuncture often is a stressful event for research animals...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Scheffler, J. et al. 1990. Cortisol response of female rhesus monkeys to venipuncture in homecage versus venipuncture in restraint apparatus. Journal of Medical Primatology 19, 601-606.

All subjects were well habituated to blood collection, and it was not necessary to immobilize them; they readily presented a leg for venipuncture. In single monkeys venipunctured in the restraint apparatus, cortisol concentrations were on...

Marshall, F. H. A. 1940. The experimental modification of the oestrous cycle in the ferret by different intensities of light irradiations and other methods. Journal of Experimental Biology 17, 139-147.

With female ferrets subjected to different degrees of intensity of light irradiation as measured by placing them at different distances from a 1000 W. lamp, the acceleration of the oestrous cycle, generally speaking, was correlated...