National Research Council. 2008. Recognition and Alleviation of Distress in Laboratory Animals. The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 136 pp.

The book focuses specifically on the scientific understanding of the causes and the functions of stress and distress, the transformation of stress to distress, and the identification of principles for the recognition and alleviation of distress. This book discusses the role of humane endpoints in situations of distress and principles for the minimization of distress in laboratory animals. Distress can be used to describe a state in which an animal, unable to adapt to one or more stressors, is no longer successfully coping with its environment and its well-being is compromised. Generally, a state of distress develops over a relatively long period of time; however, short, intense stressor(s) can also compromise animal well-being and induce acute distress. Thus, an animal may be in distress even if it appears to recover rapidly after the removal of the stressor or the conclusion of the procedure.[p.10] Stress denotes a real or perceived perturbation to an organism's physiological homeostasis or psychological well-being. In its stress response the body uses a constellation of behavioral or physiological mechanisms to counter the perturbation and return to normalcy. Stress responses serve to promote physiological and psychological adaptation and are, therefore, beneficial and desirable. [p.10-11] Refining aspects of housing, husbandry, enrichment and socialization help alleviate or prevent distress. [p.55] Replacement of an animal with a non-animal model or a less sentient species, usually of a lower phylogenetic order, such as a primitive invertebrate. [p.55] Barren environments may [emphasis added] not meet the species-specific needs of an animal. [p. 66]